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การประชุมวิชาการสถาบันพระปกเกล้า 133
ครั้งที่ 20 ประจำาปี 2561
ประชาธิปไตยไทย: ก้าวย่างเพื่อการพัฒนา

has been replaced by oligarchic representative democracy (Law No. 22 of 1999), and finally

with free direct democracy (Law No. 32 of 2004). This shift has major implications in terms
of the pattern of leadership in the region. In the New Order era, leadership in the region was

dominated by high-ranking officers or retired officers and senior bureaucrats. For example,
the position of governor in the island of Java is always filled by high-ranking officers. DKI, for

example, was led by Ali Sadikin, Tjokropranolo, Suprapto, Surjadi Sudirdja. West Java was led
by Solihin GP and Aang Kunaefi; East Java was led by Basofi Soedirman and Imam Utomo;

Central Java is led by Ismail and Mardiyanto. Areas outside Java controlled by the military, for
example East Nusa Tenggara (Ben Mboi), West Kalimantan (Kadarusno), West Nusa Tenggara

(Gatot Suherman), Papua (Abraham Atururi). In the mid-1970s, 22 of the 26 provinces were led
by the military. Until 1998/1999, 122 of 329 districts / cities and 15 of 27 provinces were led

by those with a military background (Samego et al. 1998: 106-107).

Table 1. Background of Candidates of Gubernatorial Elections in 2005-2008

Candidate for Candidate for deputy Total
governor governor
(no.) (%) (no.) (%) (no.) (%)

Bureaucrat 21 15.9 40 30.3 61 2.3

Parliamentarian (all 27 20.4 35 26.5 62 2.3
levels of government)
District head/mayor 33 25 11 8.3 44 16.7

Military/police 15 11.4 6 4.5 21 7.9

Business person 8 6.0 13 9.9 21 7.9
Incumbent deputy 10 7.6 5 3.8 15 5.7

governor
Incumbent governor 14 10.6 0 0.0 14 5.3

Academic 3 2.3 11 8.3 14 5.3
Party cadre 0 0.0 7 5.3 7 2.7

Lawyer 1 0.7 0 0.0 1 0.4

Other 0 0.0 4 3.0 4 1.5
Total 132 100.0 132 100.0 264 100.0

Source: Buehler, 2009: 275